Abstract
References
- Backhans, M. C., Lundberg, M., & Ma˚nsdotter, A. (2007). Does increased gender equality lead to a convergence of health outcomes for men and women? A study of Swedish municipalities. Social Science & Medicine, 64(9), pp. 1892-1903. Cihan News Agency (CNA). (2013). FE-le: Turkey should encourage women's political participation. Al Bawaba (Middle East) Ltd, Access No.edsgcl.348420638. Cihan News Agency (CNA). (2015). Education and human development. Infotrac Newsstand, Viewed on 27 September, 2017, <galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=STND&sw=w&u=9211haea&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CA412378369&it=r&asid=3bf6c21df725ce9335b8d155eaa0a0a2>. Erdoğan, S., Yildirim, D.Ç., & Tosuner, Ö. (2012). The Effect of Gender Inequality in Education on Health: Evidence from Turkey. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 12(3), pp.1860-1866. Ferretti, F., & Mariani, M. (2017). Gender discrimination, gender disparities in obesity and human development. Heliyon, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Reggio Emilia, Italy, no. e00263. Güçlü, N., Gumus, S., & Gumus, E. (2010). The Relationship between Women's Education and Socio-economic Development: The Case of Turkey. International Journal of Learning, 17(4), pp. 559-570, 12p. Iravani, M. R. (2010) Women’s Education, Employment and Unemployment in Iran. Rajagiri Journal of Social Development, 1(2), pp. 31-44. Joyce, J. J. (2015). Gender Politics: The Effects of Western Ideology on the Progress of Feminism in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Ming Chuan University, Taipei, Taiwan. Kiadaliri, A. A., Saadat, S., Shahnavazi, H., & Haghparast-Bidgoli, H. (2014). Overall, gender and social inequalities in suicide mortality in Iran, 2006–2010: a time trend province-level study. BMJ Open 2014;4:e005227, < doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005227>. Makita, M., & Makita, C. (2016). The causal effect of increased primary schooling on child mortality in Malawi: Universal primary education as a natural experiment. In Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier Ltd, Albany, NY, USA. Moghadam, V.M. (1991). The Reproduction of Gender Inequality in Muslim Societies: A Case Study of Iran in the 1980s. World Development, 19(10), pp. 1335-1349. Nussbaum, M. (2011). Capabilities, Entitlements, Rights: Supplementation and Critique. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 12(1), pp. 23-37. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). (2012). OSCE Promotes Women’s Participation in Political Parties in Azerbaijan. Newsroom, Baku, Azerbaijan, Accessed 30 Sept.2017, < http://www.osce.org/baku/91387>. Payne, S. (2012). An elusive goal? Gender equity and gender equality in health policy. Gesundheitswesen Subsets: MEDLINE, Germany, 74(4), pp. 19-24. Rahbari, L. (2016). Women in Higher Education and Academia in Iran. Sociology and Anthropology, 4(11), pp. 1003-1010. Sen, A. (1988). The Concept of Development, in Chenery, H & Srinivasan, T.N (ed.). Handbook of development economics. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Vol. 1, pp.9-26. Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom, Alfred A. Knopf. INC, New York, pp.3-35 & 227-282. Sen, A. (2003). Development as Capability Expansion, in Fukuda-Parr S, et al (ed.). Readings in Human Development, New Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 41-58. Sen, A. (2005). Human Rights and Capabilities. Journal of Human Development, vol. 6:2, pp.151-166. Sen, A. (2013). The Ends and Means of Sustainability. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 14(1), pp. 6-20. Teorell, J., Kumlin, S., Dahlberg, S., Holmberg, S., Rothstein, B., Khomenko, A., & Svensson, R. (2017). The Quality of Government OECD Dataset, University of Gothenburg: The Quality of Government Institute. <http://www.qog.pol.gu.se doi:10.18157/QoGOECDJan17>. UNESCO. (2010). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2008, Reaching to the Marginalized. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO. (2015). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2000-2015: achievements and challenges. Paris: UNESCO. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2016a). Overview Human Development Report 2016: Human Development for Everyone. The United Nations Development Programme UN Plaza, New York, pp. 1-24. United Nations Development Program (UNDP). (2016b). Human Development for Everyone. Briefing note for countries on the 2016 Human Development Report: Iran (Islamic Republic of). United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (1990). Human Development Report: Concept and Measurement of Human Development, New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (1995). Human Development Report 1995. Oxford University Press for the United Nations Development Programme, New York. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2011). United Nations Development Programme in the Islamic Republic of Iran: Country Programme. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2015a). Human Development Data: Gender- based life expectancy, updated by HDRO based on data from UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2016), United Nations Development Program, United States. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2015b). Human Development Data: Gender- based mean years of schooling, updated by HDRO based on data from UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2016), United Nations Development Program, United States. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2016a). Human Development for Everyone: technical notes, UN, New York. United Nations Development Program (UNDP). (2016b). Human Development for Everyone, Briefing note for countries on the 2016 Human Development Report: Iran (Islamic Republic of). United Nations Millennium Development Goals and Beyond. (2015). Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women. Viewed 18 July 2017, <http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/gender.shtml>. Walker, M. (2005). Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach and Education, Educational Action Research, University of Sheffield, UK, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1-8. World Bank. (2016). World Development Indicators. Viewed 12 August 2017, <http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators>. World Bank (2017a). School enrollment, tertiary, male and female (% gross), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Institute for Statistics. Viewed 1 October 2017, < https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR.MA?locations=IR> & < https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR.FE?locations=IR>. World Education Services (WES). (2001). Iran: Overview of the Education System, Canada. Viewed 9 October 2017, <https://web.archive.org/web/20120224011506/http://www.wes.org/ca/wedb/iran/firedov.htm#e>. Zahedifar, E. (2012). Women in Higher Education in Iran, Institute of Educational Research, University of Oslo, Norway, p.78.
ANALYSIS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN IRAN: EDUCATION, EMPLOYMENT AND GENDER IN A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE
Abstract
This paper addresses existing gender parities and gaps
in Iran, Turkey and Azerbaijan in terms of human development. Human development
by enlarging people’s freedoms and potentials draws the attention to “ends” and
insists on intrinsic significance of development. The main components of human
development are: capabilities, free agency and achievements. Health, education
and economic resources are essential indicators of Human Development Index
(HDI) which share the same ratio in HDI value estimation. Gender inequality as
a global phenomenon, increasingly focuses on women’s deprivation of education,
health, income and social developments. This paper discusses Iran's educational
developments in gender equality and compares female-to-male progresses in HDI
indicators of Iran with Turkey and Azerbaijan. The main goal of human
development and capability approach is equal distribution of capabilities and
functionings among people. The exceptional status of education in having both
intrinsic and instrumental values multiplies the significances of equal
education in a global context. In addition to direct impact of education on
total health and income rates, parity in education has the capacity to empower
women and make them qualified for well-paid vocations.
Iran from 1990 to 2015 has had a sustainable progress in
health, education and per capita income. Iran has almost succeeded to close the
gender gap in education, while it remains in achievements so far. In comparison
to Turkey and Azerbaijan, raising women’s capabilities has led to their more
achievements in terms of economic resources, labour force and politics.
According to human development reports, Turkey in capability distribution has
experienced more gender disparity than Iran. By filtering the health indicator,
Azerbaijan has the best status in gender parity rather than Turkey and Iran.
Turkish women’s high life expectancy at birth is the best among the analyzed
countries. Unlike Iran, educated women in Azerbaijan and Turkey have lower
unemployment rates than Iranian women. That is probably why women in Iran
recently have less interest to continue their education in tertiary level and
this disappointment has reproduced the gender gap.
Keywords
Azerbaijan education employment equality gender Human Development Index human development Iran inequality Turkey
References
- Backhans, M. C., Lundberg, M., & Ma˚nsdotter, A. (2007). Does increased gender equality lead to a convergence of health outcomes for men and women? A study of Swedish municipalities. Social Science & Medicine, 64(9), pp. 1892-1903. Cihan News Agency (CNA). (2013). FE-le: Turkey should encourage women's political participation. Al Bawaba (Middle East) Ltd, Access No.edsgcl.348420638. Cihan News Agency (CNA). (2015). Education and human development. Infotrac Newsstand, Viewed on 27 September, 2017, <galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=STND&sw=w&u=9211haea&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CA412378369&it=r&asid=3bf6c21df725ce9335b8d155eaa0a0a2>. Erdoğan, S., Yildirim, D.Ç., & Tosuner, Ö. (2012). The Effect of Gender Inequality in Education on Health: Evidence from Turkey. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 12(3), pp.1860-1866. Ferretti, F., & Mariani, M. (2017). Gender discrimination, gender disparities in obesity and human development. Heliyon, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Reggio Emilia, Italy, no. e00263. Güçlü, N., Gumus, S., & Gumus, E. (2010). The Relationship between Women's Education and Socio-economic Development: The Case of Turkey. International Journal of Learning, 17(4), pp. 559-570, 12p. Iravani, M. R. (2010) Women’s Education, Employment and Unemployment in Iran. Rajagiri Journal of Social Development, 1(2), pp. 31-44. Joyce, J. J. (2015). Gender Politics: The Effects of Western Ideology on the Progress of Feminism in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Ming Chuan University, Taipei, Taiwan. Kiadaliri, A. A., Saadat, S., Shahnavazi, H., & Haghparast-Bidgoli, H. (2014). Overall, gender and social inequalities in suicide mortality in Iran, 2006–2010: a time trend province-level study. BMJ Open 2014;4:e005227, < doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005227>. Makita, M., & Makita, C. (2016). The causal effect of increased primary schooling on child mortality in Malawi: Universal primary education as a natural experiment. In Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier Ltd, Albany, NY, USA. Moghadam, V.M. (1991). The Reproduction of Gender Inequality in Muslim Societies: A Case Study of Iran in the 1980s. World Development, 19(10), pp. 1335-1349. Nussbaum, M. (2011). Capabilities, Entitlements, Rights: Supplementation and Critique. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 12(1), pp. 23-37. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). (2012). OSCE Promotes Women’s Participation in Political Parties in Azerbaijan. Newsroom, Baku, Azerbaijan, Accessed 30 Sept.2017, < http://www.osce.org/baku/91387>. Payne, S. (2012). An elusive goal? Gender equity and gender equality in health policy. Gesundheitswesen Subsets: MEDLINE, Germany, 74(4), pp. 19-24. Rahbari, L. (2016). Women in Higher Education and Academia in Iran. Sociology and Anthropology, 4(11), pp. 1003-1010. Sen, A. (1988). The Concept of Development, in Chenery, H & Srinivasan, T.N (ed.). Handbook of development economics. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Vol. 1, pp.9-26. Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom, Alfred A. Knopf. INC, New York, pp.3-35 & 227-282. Sen, A. (2003). Development as Capability Expansion, in Fukuda-Parr S, et al (ed.). Readings in Human Development, New Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 41-58. Sen, A. (2005). Human Rights and Capabilities. Journal of Human Development, vol. 6:2, pp.151-166. Sen, A. (2013). The Ends and Means of Sustainability. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 14(1), pp. 6-20. Teorell, J., Kumlin, S., Dahlberg, S., Holmberg, S., Rothstein, B., Khomenko, A., & Svensson, R. (2017). The Quality of Government OECD Dataset, University of Gothenburg: The Quality of Government Institute. <http://www.qog.pol.gu.se doi:10.18157/QoGOECDJan17>. UNESCO. (2010). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2008, Reaching to the Marginalized. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO. (2015). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2000-2015: achievements and challenges. Paris: UNESCO. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2016a). Overview Human Development Report 2016: Human Development for Everyone. The United Nations Development Programme UN Plaza, New York, pp. 1-24. United Nations Development Program (UNDP). (2016b). Human Development for Everyone. Briefing note for countries on the 2016 Human Development Report: Iran (Islamic Republic of). United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (1990). Human Development Report: Concept and Measurement of Human Development, New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (1995). Human Development Report 1995. Oxford University Press for the United Nations Development Programme, New York. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2011). United Nations Development Programme in the Islamic Republic of Iran: Country Programme. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2015a). Human Development Data: Gender- based life expectancy, updated by HDRO based on data from UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2016), United Nations Development Program, United States. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2015b). Human Development Data: Gender- based mean years of schooling, updated by HDRO based on data from UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2016), United Nations Development Program, United States. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2016a). Human Development for Everyone: technical notes, UN, New York. United Nations Development Program (UNDP). (2016b). Human Development for Everyone, Briefing note for countries on the 2016 Human Development Report: Iran (Islamic Republic of). United Nations Millennium Development Goals and Beyond. (2015). Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women. Viewed 18 July 2017, <http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/gender.shtml>. Walker, M. (2005). Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach and Education, Educational Action Research, University of Sheffield, UK, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1-8. World Bank. (2016). World Development Indicators. Viewed 12 August 2017, <http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators>. World Bank (2017a). School enrollment, tertiary, male and female (% gross), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Institute for Statistics. Viewed 1 October 2017, < https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR.MA?locations=IR> & < https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR.FE?locations=IR>. World Education Services (WES). (2001). Iran: Overview of the Education System, Canada. Viewed 9 October 2017, <https://web.archive.org/web/20120224011506/http://www.wes.org/ca/wedb/iran/firedov.htm#e>. Zahedifar, E. (2012). Women in Higher Education in Iran, Institute of Educational Research, University of Oslo, Norway, p.78.
Details
| Primary Language | English |
|---|---|
| Journal Section | Articles |
| Authors | |
| Publication Date | April 30, 2018 |
| Submission Date | February 11, 2018 |
| Published in Issue | Year 2018Volume: 4 Issue: 10 |
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