WORKERS OF THE WORLD AGAINST WAR: SOCIALIST ANTI-MILITARISM AND THE EVOLUTION OF PACIFIST THOUGHT (1848–1939)

Between the revolutionary upheavals of 1848 and the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, socialist movements played a crucial role in shaping discourses on war, militarism, and peace, socialist anti-militarism developing as both a theoretical framework and a political strategy, deeply embedded in critiques of capitalism, imperialism, and class exploitation. While some factions rejected war outright as an instrument of bourgeois domination, others viewed military conflict as a means to advance revolutionary transformation and this ideological tension shaped the broader socialist response to war and peace across the 19th and early 20th centuries. This paper traces the evolution of socialist anti-militarism, beginning with the intellectual foundations laid by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who identified war as a structural outcome of capitalist competition. It examines the role of the First and Second Internationals in formulating socialist opposition to militarism, particularly through resolutions advocating workers' resistance to war. The outbreak of World War I, however, fractured socialist internationalism, as most socialist parties abandoned their anti-war commitments in favor of national allegiances. In the interwar period, socialist movements engaged in both institutional peace efforts, such as supporting the League of Nations, and militant resistance against fascism, particularly during the Spanish Civil War. The contradictions within socialist pacifism—between ideological commitment to peace and the necessity of armed struggle—highlight the complexities of anti-militarist thought. By analyzing socialist engagements with war and peace from 1848 to 1939, this paper develops on the enduring relevance of socialist critiques of militarism in contemporary political thought, particularly in discussions on international relations and peace-building strategies.